Human Variation & Race

1.     Heat can negatively impact human homeostasis in many ways.  Heat can cause a person to lose water within their body which can lead to dehydration. Heat also can lead to heat stroke when a person’s body has trouble regulating their temperature which then in turn causes unconsciousness or fever. Extreme cases in dehydration and heat stroke can lead to death. Less severe effects of heat can be exhaustion and an irritable mood.

2.      Short term adaptation to heat includes sweating to cool off the body’s internal temperature and maintain homeostasis.

Facultative adaptation to heat includes a lowering in a person’s metabolic rate. When the body’s metabolic rate is lowered it therefore produces less heat which can keep a person cooler in high temperatures.

Developmental adaptations to heat can include the loss of the general amount of body fat a population carries over the course of generations. When a person has less body fat they can regulate heat better and maintain homeostasis. Also there is likely to be less body hair as there is no need for it with the prolonged exposure to heat.

Cultural Adaptations to heat vary in some methods but are relatively the same. Some cultures use an electric fan or a household cooling system in order to reduce the heat, others may use a paper fan. Some cultures carry umbrellas with them for shade when there is heat. Many people often wear less bulky clothes or leave more of their skin exposed with their clothes in order to reduce heat as well.

3.     There are many benefits to studying human variation across environmental clines.  This gives us a better understanding of us as humans and how we adapt to different environmental stresses. It can teach us how our bodies react long term over certain n stressors and also we can learn about different ways populations chose to respond to these stressors as a group. An example of this could be the discovery of skin cancer in relation to the amount of melanin a person’s skin tone holds. People with darker skin tones are less likely to suffer from skin cancer while people with lighter skin tones are more susceptible to it. This discovery can teach us about the variations of people and how their skin adapted over time in order to suit the environment they lived in.

4.     Race can be the prolonged exposure to different environmental stressors. With the stressor being heat, a certain race of people can be naturally thinner than others in order to reduce their body temperature; this race can also have less body hair in order to reduce heat as well. The study of environmental impacts on human variation and how humans adapted to it is better than studying it by the means of race in many ways. Studying race can lead to negative stereotypes and racism if you are looking at human variation that way. It can lead people to believe that a certain group of people are superior to others. When one studies environmental differences as an effect on human variation it can portray people in an equal way. It will show that we are all of the same species, there are only slight differences in our appearance because of the adaptations that have occurred over time in an effort to better suit the environment groups of people lived in. 

Language

Part 1

I found this assignment very difficult. My partner did alter the way they communicated with me in order to match my non-verbal communication. My partner mostly asked yes or no questions where I could reply nodding my head the yes or no answer. Other than the questions most of our conversation was me listening to my partners comments or stories.

My partner was definitely in control of the conversation.  My partner was the one who initiated or changed topics. I was the one mostly responding to his comments. My partner would also ask all the questions and I would be the one answering them. In this conversation I felt that my partner was in control and I was the one listening only or trying to answer.  It was difficult for me to answer anything more than a yes or no question with non verbal cues. If I attempted to he would have trouble understanding me .

I think that the culture that uses speaking language would have the advantage of communicating complex concepts to others.  I think that the speaking culture might feel that the culture that uses symbolic language cannot communicate as thoroughly as they can. I think that by using words and sentences along with non verbal cues one can communicate very complicated ideals to others more easily than just using symbolic language alone. A modern situation that mirrors this concept might be the use of sign language within deaf people.

Part 2

I felt that this part of the assignment was slightly easier than the last portion, although this was still very difficult. In the beginning of this assignment I found it hard to not use any facial or body signals while communicating. Over time I adjusted and my partner had difficulty understanding me. With no verbal tone or facial and body movements some of the things that i communicated became easily misinterpreted within my partner.

This experiment shows the importance of symbolic gestures within our communication. Without them it is very hard to understand what one is feeling or thinking at the time based on their speech alone. Body language and facial cues give a large importance of what one person is thinking and it conveys the emotions behind the words they are speaking.

Body language within our world is very important. Based on communication alone it would be hard for one to thrive within our society. Body language can show other people when you are feeling threatened or scared, it can show them when they need to back away. Positive body language is also important for things like obtaining a job, when one has a relaxed posture but composed it is more likely that they will obtain this job. When they obtain this job then they can get the resources that they need to survive with the money they make.

I think there are some people who may have difficulty recognizing body language within our society though I cannot think of a group in particular.  However in different cultures I think that some body language is more acceptable than others. For example in some middle eastern countries two men holding hands is very acceptable and a show of friendship, where as in the country we live in some people frown upon it. I think that when the police are dealing with a pathological liar sometimes it might be better to not give too much importance to their body language as they can be giving you the wrong signal purposely.

Piltdown Hoax

          The Piltdown Man hoax was the remains of jaw bone and skull found in 1912 in a southern English village called Piltdown. The remains were found by an amateur archeologist Charles Dawson. These remains at the time were seen as an evolutionary branch of early humans. The skull resembled a human skull, while the jaw structure resembled that of an ape, yet the teeth that were found on the jaw were flattened down like that of a human. The remains at the time were thought to be one million years old. It was a big discovery at the time for remains of early humans had been found in France, Germany, and Asia but none in England. It was a joy in the scientific community that England now had ancient human fossils, which may have been the oldest of all found at the time. The findings at the time would have taught us that humans had developed big brains before they walked upright. However the opposite is known to be true today. In the 1920’s more early human fossils began to be found in Asia and Africa. The fossils that were found seemed to come after the Piltdown man fossil, yet the fossils had skulls that were less human like than the Piltdown man. This raised a lot of suspicion about the fossil however there were no accurate dating methods available at the time. In 1953 a full scale analysis was conducted on the fossil. It showed that the fossil had been artificially stained and that it had been cut with a steel knife. They had also found that the teeth were filed down into a desired shape by evidence of many scratch marks. They found that the jaw bone had come from a female orangutan less than 100 years ago and the skull had come from a modern day human. Parts of the jaw that would have indicated it was an orangutan were cut off and removed. For scientists this was a big discovery that had disproved their knowledge for 40 years. However it positively affected the field of science since the skull did not match up with other findings. 

          Many humans by nature want to become recognized and known for something within their life. The desire for an accomplishment and to make a discovery could have led someone to do this. With no early human remains being found in England at the time many people became very happy over this discovery, although there were skeptics many people wanted to believe that such a huge discovery could have been made in England. The national museum where it was kept did not allow many people to view the remains because of the belief or want of belief that it was real, which did not allow much way of disproving the skull. I believe that the human faults of wanting to believe in something and the desire of an accomplishment came into play here.

          The first test to analyze the Piltdown man was a fluorine test in 1949 that could roughly date fossils. The results of this test showed that the fossil was roughly a hundred thousand years old.  In 1953 a full scale analysis was conducted on the fossil. It showed that the bones had been stained with an iron solution and chromic acid in order to produce a look of age. The jaw had come from a female orangutan and parts of the jaw were removed to not allow people to tell that it was from an orangutan such as the front of the jaw, and the top. The teeth upon microscopic evaluation had scratch marks and abrasions on them that showed they had been filed down to look as if they would be human like. The teeth likely came from a chimpanzee. The skull had come from a human dating back around 500 years ago or so. So the skull was of a modern human. All of these pieces were skillfully crafted together in order to create this elaborate hoax.

          I do not think that it is possible to remove the human factor from science completely. I think that we can lessen it as paying attention to evidence and logic, and not being afraid to challenge others in their findings. I think it is important to try and lessen the human factor in science as much as we can to be able to avoid error. In science we cannot go off of what we want to see, we have to go with the evidence and what our logic makes of it. I also think that findings and theories should not be afraid to be challenged in order to better understand. I think that it is human nature to see and understand what we want to understand internally, placebo effect should try to be avoided. People often times are afraid to speak up when with the minority and going against the majority’s will however this is something that we also should avoid.

          With this historical event, I think it can teach us that it is very important to thoroughly examine any evidence found. When information is taken from an unverified source it should be thoroughly examined and questioned. It should be questioned as to where it was found, when it was found, and how it was found. Information should never be just blindly accepted. 

Comparative Primate Blog Post

The topic assigned to me was dentition patterns. Dentition patterns refer to the kind, number, and arrangement of the teeth.

Lemurs are mainly located in the island of Madagascar. Lemurs enjoy living in tropical environments. Lemurs spend most of their lives living in trees, because of their small size their diet is mainly other small animals such as frogs, baby birds, and insects. Lemurs because of their small size are suited for the environment in Madagascar because there are not many other primates that they have to compete with for food. The lemur’s dental formula is 2.1.3.3. Most lemurs have four incisor teeth and two canines. These teeth also stick forward rather than upwards. The reason for this being is probably for the foods lemurs eat. Since they feast upon small animals it is not really required of them to have a lot of teeth, especially when their prey is so small and relatively easy for them to grab a hold of.

Spider Monkeys are located in tropical climates of Central and South America. Spider monkeys live in the tree tops of their tropical climate. Their diet includes nuts, fruits, leaves, bird eggs and spiders. Spider monkeys can emit a loud sound to communicate that can be heard from very far away even with its small size. Spider monkeys have 2 incisors, 1 canine, 3 premolars, and 2 molars. Their dental formula is 2.1.3.3. Spider monkeys live in the tops of trees which explains why their diet is such. It is possible that Spider monkeys have this tooth structure because the food that they eat is not relatively hard to kill. They might have adapted to have many molars so it is easier to chew the foods that they eat.

Baboons are most commonly found in East Africa. They are very adaptable when it comes to habitat they only require a close water source and a safe place to sleep. Baboons usually sleep in tall trees. They are very intelligent animals so this can explain their ability to adapt within different environments. Baboons mainly eat seeds, berries, leaves, and sap from plants. However they will eat insects, fish and birds. Baboons have powerful jaws with sharp canine teeth. Their dental formula is 2.1.2.3. Even though Baboons have a mostly plant diet it is likely that the reason for their sharp teeth and powerful jaws is to ward away predators that evolved over time.

Gibbons make their habitat in Southeast Asia. They are very nimble and swing from trees very easily; this makes predators hard to catch them. About 75% of a gibbon’s diet is fruit. However they will also feast upon insects and small birds. The gibbons dental formula is 2.1.2.3. They have elongated canine teeth which may also be a way to ward off predators since there is no need for that large of teeth in regards to their diet.

Chimpanzees are mainly located on the western side of Africa. They make their homes in different types of forests. Chimpanzees will be seen in savanna areas but it is usually only for a short while as they are making their way to another forest patch. The chimpanzees’ diet ranges from fruits, seeds, and leaves to insects and medium sized mammals. The chimpanzee’s dental formula is 2.1.2.3. It is likely that the dental formula for the chimpanzee is this for a large part of its diet is eating leaves and other natural food that may be hard to chew.

It seems that primates who have a large diet of mostly plants have more molars to help grind and chew the food they eat. The primates that have sharper teeth in the front are usually a method of defense against other predators in the area if they have a mostly plant based diet. Animals who have a more meat based diet tend to have sharper incisors. 

Analogy and Homology

1. Black bears and Pandas are very similar animals, both share the homologous trait of fur and a closely resembled body structure, but have a difference in paw structure.  

b. Black bears have paws that are sharpened at the end with five fingers. The black bears diet consists of many different types of foods from insects, fish, fruit, and small mammals. Black bears are also extremely hungry animals because of their choice of food within their diet it is likely that black bears developed sharper claws than pandas so they can gather their food. The panda bear has a paw with 6 fingers extending from it with less sharpened claws than the black bear. This 6^th finger is called the radial sesamoid. The radial sesamoid was likely to develop since panda bears have a strict diet of only bamboo. The radial sesamoid acts as a thumb and allows the panda to grasp the bamboo. Although both animals have a very similar paw structure there is a slight difference to both of them.

c. It is likely that both animals may have descended from early dog like creatures. They share the resemblance of dogs in some ways such as their paws and their facial structure is a bit similar.

2. Dolphins and beavers are two animals that both have tails. However the use of their tails is vastly different.

b. Dolphins use their tails to swim and maneuver themselves while they are underwater. Beavers use their tails to help build shelters or dams. While both of these animals have tails the uses for them are extremely different. The dolphin is a primarily aquatic animal, while the beaver is only a semi aquatic animal. Both share an aquatic habitat and have a similar structure to them, however it is used differently. The beaver’s tail does not provide much aid in swimming since it has webbed feet however the dolphin relies on its tail to maneuver underwater. Both animals have a tail bone as well.

c. It is possible that the dolphin and the beaver could be traced back to a common ancestor. Both animals live in aquatic environments and are mammals that breathe. The beaver may have came from the same ancestor as the dolphin but managed to evolve over time and adapt to a lifestyle partially on land.

Protein Synthesis

A C C A T A C T A A G G C G T G  A G T G T A A A C G G A C G G C C A T T G A T C A T T G

Historical Influences on Darwin

1. I believe that Jean-Baptiste Lamark had the most influence over Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution in a positive way.

2. Jean-Baptiste Lamark believed in evolution in the sense that nature perfected itself. He believed that with time and favorable conditions organisms would adapt to fit their surroundings and change in order to cope better with nature. With the change of nature if there were less of a need to use a certain organ that organ would shrink or diminish, if there was more of a need for that organ the organ would grow or become stronger. The physiological needs of organisms would change in order to fit the environment they are put in. He briefly mentions natural selection in his findings but does not entertain it much. He believed that species do not become extinct but rather perfect themselves into becoming a new species to live more favorably within their conditions.

 http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/history/lamarck.html

3.  A. If the environment changes the traits that or helpful or adaptive to that environment will be different.

          Lamark helped influence this ideal to Darwin in many ways. He believed that organisms would change their structure over time in order to better suit the environment. Lamark believed that nature would perfect itself in order to meet the conditions it dealt with.

B.  In order for traits to evolve and change, they MUST be heritable.

          Lamark’s book Philosphie Zoologique explained this idea of heredity. He explained how certain plant and animal forms began to grow different structures within them that did not match the adult plant or animal. Lamark believed in inheritance from adult animals that would be able to adapt and change.

C. Individuals do not evolve. Populations do.

          Lamark’s theory of evolution was based on this ideal. He believed that with time, along with favorable conditions, nature would evolve. He mentioned that within time and through reproduction organisms would then begin to evolve. The organisms do not evolve on their own but through time and reproduction.

4. Darwin could have possibly developed his idea of natural selection without Lamark’s findings. Lamark did not believe that species died off, but rather changed and perfected themselves. However he did mention the theory of natural selection within his writings although it was only briefly and of not much importance. Even though Lamark’s philosophy on natural selection was a bit different it had many similarities with Darwin’s theory. It is possible to me that Darwin had used Lamark’s work as an aid in his own theory.

5. The attitude of the church made Charles Darwin hesitant to release his book. At the time people who believed in evolution were seen as radicals and atheists. Many of them supported Lamarck.s ideas and the church looked upon this with suspicion. There was a fear of evolution that it might destroy the church and savagery would break out.